Machiavellian - one
who adopts the principles of Niccolo
Machiavelli (1469-1527), a Florentine political
theorist who advocated the use of duplicity and
cunning in political affairs. Machiavelli
thought man was naturally evil and was best
governed by the use of fear and force:
"Whoever desires to found a state and give
it laws, must start with assuming that all men
are bad and ever ready to display their vicious
nature." An unscrupulous and crafty strategy
was acceptable because the ends justified the
means. macroeconomics - a branch of
economics that is concerned with the overall
picture of the economy, with aggregates rather
than individual parts. Macroeconomics deals
with data such as the level of employment, Gross
National Product, economic growth, balance of
payments, inflation, etc., rather than with
individual companies or markets, which is the
province of microeconomics.
magistrate - a judge of a minor
court. majority -
more than half of a given thing, as when a
political party has the largest share of seats
in a legislature; also means being of full legal
age, as in she reaches her majority on her next
birthday. Malthusian - refers to the
theory of Thomas Malthus, an eighteenth century
British clergyman and professor of political
economy, whose Essay on the Principle of
Population (1798) developed the theory that the
world's population tended to grow faster than
its food supply. If the population continued to
increase, there would be mass starvation. Malthus
thought that famine, poverty, and war were
natural checks against population growth and
should not be alleviated by misguided compassion.
Malthus also advocated restraint on the size of
families. Although Malthus was proved incorrect
as far as Western industrial society is
concerned, the dramatic world population growth
in the twentieth century, and the fact that some
Third World nations cannot feed their rising
populations, has led to a renewed interest in
Malthusian theories in some circles.
mandate - an order or command; the wishes of
constituents expressed to a representative.
Politicians usually like to maintain that they
have a mandate for the policies they pursue,
which gives the policies the legitmacy that
they need. When politicans win elections by big
margins they tend to assume they have a
mandate, and are sometimes thereby more bold in
pursuing their goals than they might otherwise
be. During the Clinton administration
(1993-2001), some of Bill Clinton's opponents
questioned whether Clinton had a mandate from
the people because he was elected president in
1992 and 1996 with less than 50 percent of the
vote. This was because of a strong showing by a
third-party candidate. manifesto -
a public statement of beliefs or plans by a
government or other group, such as the
communist manifesto. maritime law -
a collection of laws, built up by custom over
centuries, that relate to shipping. Maritime
law deals with such matters as registration,
license, and inspection procedures; with
contracts regarding insurance, carrying of
goods and passengers, towage, supplies.
market - the buying and selling of goods
and commodities, in a marketplace. This has
nothing to do with a particular location-it
refers only to the conditions where buyers and
sellers can conduct business together. A market
results whenever the forces of supply and demand
operate. market forces - refers to
the mechanism by which basic questions of buying
and selling are answered, such as the quantity of
goods to be produced, the price they are to be
sold at, etc., when this takes place without
governement intervention. If, for example, a
supply of certain goods suddenly becomes scarce
(say a fruit crop is badly affected by the
weather), the law of supply and demand will
ensure that the price for those goods goes up,
and this is an example of market forces at
work. martial law - rule of a state
by the military, usually as a temporary
measure, caused by an emergency. The term can
also refer to a period of harsh rule by a
military regime that is not sanctioned by popular
vote or the nation's constitution. For example,
for much of the 1980s, Pakistan was placed
under martial law by the military dictator,
General Zia ul-Haq. Marxism - the
theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels, which became the official doctrine of
communism. According to Marxism, the key to how
society operated was economics; all other aspects
of society, such as politics and religion, were
conditioned by the economic system. Under
capitalism, society was divided into two
classes: the capitalists who owned the means of
production and distribution, and the workers, or
proletariat, whose labor was exploited by the
ruling class. Marx saw history as a dialectical
process in which two opposing forces (thesis
and antithesis) generate a third, synthesizing
force. According to this view, capitalism would
eventually break down because of its own
contradictions and this would lead to the
proletarian revolution and the establishment of
the classless society. In the later part of
nineteenth century Marxism was adopted by labor
and socialist movements in Europe. In the
twentieth century Marxist governments came to
power in Russia and Eastern Europe, and in
varying guises, in Asian countries such as
China, North Korea and Vietnam, in Cuba, and in
some African countries. In none of these
countries did the state eventually wither away
and a classless society replace it. On the
contrary, Marxist societies were characterized by
large and inefficient bureaucracies and had all
the trappings of a police state. After the
collapse of Soviet and Eastern European communism
in 1989 and 1990, Marxism remained a viable
system in only a few countries.
Marxist - a believer or expert in Marxism.
Marxism-Leninism - the term was first used
by Stalin in 1924: it referred to the
interpretation of Marxism by Lenin, which became
the official Soviet ideology during the rule of
Stalin, and beyond. It included the doctrine,
devloped from Lenin, that the absolute power of
the communist party had to be maintained during
the interim period of the building of socialism.
However, much communist ideology was so adapted
by Stalin that some of it bore little relation
to Marx's or Lenin's original thoughts. For
example, it was Stalin, not Marx or Lenin, who
proclaimed "socialism in one country"
(the idea that socialism could succeed in
Russia without the assistance of worldwide
revolution). See also Marxism; Leninism.
mass hysteria - when irrational, or wild
and uncontrollable behavior spreads rapidly
through a crowd, or through a section of society.
The notorious Salem witch trials in
seventeenth-century Massachusetts, in which
innocent people were put to death, was an
example.So was the mass panic that spread in a
number of American cities in 1938, when a radio
broadcast of Orson Welles' adaption of H. G.
Wells's novel The War of the Worlds???about the
invasion of earth by Martians???was
misinterpreted as a genuine news report of a
real event.
mass media - the media
that reaches huge numbers of people: television
(over 99 percent of American homes have one),
radio, newspapers and magazines, and the
Internet (including blogs and podcasts). A study
in 2008 by the Pew Research Center showed that
40 percent of people got most of their their
news about national and international events
from the Internet. Thirty-five percent cited
newspapers as their primary source. Television
was cited by 70 percent of people as a main
source of news. (Numbers add up to more than 100
because people cited more than one source.)
Amongst people under 30, 59 percent said they
got most of their news from the Internet, about
the same number as cited television. The mass
media has a huge amount of power to shape
public opinion on a range of issues, and
politicians regularly complain of media bias,
one way or the other.
masses - the vast majority of people in a given
population; the common people.
massive retaliation - part of the concept of
deterrence during the Cold War. The policy of
massive retaliation meant that any nuclear attack
on the U.S. would be met by an overwhelming
nuclear response. The belief was that knowledge
of this policy would deter the Soviet Union from
launching a first strike.
materialism - putting the highest value on the
acquisition of wealth and consumer goods rather
than in developing a spiritual or moral life. In
philosophy, materialism is the doctrine that
describes matter as the only reality-even mind
and feelings can be explained in terms of
matter. matriarchy - a society that
is dominated by women, the opposite of
patriarchy. Also refers to a society or tribe
where inheritance is passed down through the
female line. mayhem - in law, the
offense of deliberately maiming a person.
McCarthyism - to accuse a person, or a
number of persons, of subversive activities by
the use of smears and half-truths, and without
any supporting evidence. The term alludes to
Senator Joseph McCarthy (1908-56) who claimed
in 1950 that he had the names of 57
"card-carrying" commmunists in the
State Department. He produced no evidence, but
continued his witch hunt against alleged
communists for several years, using it as a means
of attacking leading Democrats and
intellectuals. McCarthy was censured by the
Senate in 1954, but not before his demogogery had
sent a wave of fear, known as the "red
scare," through American society.
media - all the means by which news is
disseminated in society: newspapers, magazines,
television, radio, and Internet, including social
media sites such as Facebook and Twitter.
Conservatives often claim that the mainstream
media is biased against them, and this
dissatisfaction has in part led to the rise of
"talk radio," call-in shows which are
dominated by right-wing hosts and contributors,
such as Rush Limbaugh. The U.S. has been called
the world's first "media state," in
which the media dominates the political
process. Because of the decline in political
party organizations, politicians now take their
message straight to the people via the media.
Elections can be won or lost by paid TV
advertising campaigns; "media
events," designed to showcase the candidate
and his wares, are carefully orchestrated. But
the media has imposed its own laws on political
discourse. Speeches, instead of being full of
carefully argued substance, are geared to
10-second or less "sound bites" for the
evening news; a politician's "image"
is everything, and is carefully crafted by
media-savvy experts. The result is often a
media-packaged candidate whose real nature and
political convictions are hard to determine.
mediation - the use of an independent
party to help settle a dispute between two
other parties. Mediation is sometimes used in
labor disputes or in international disputes.
Unlike in arbitration, the disputants enter into
no agreement to accept the suggestions of the
mediator. mercenary - a person who
offers his services for pay, and does not have
any personal adherence to the cause he
represents. Usually used of a mercenary
soldier, but can apply in other fields as
well. mercantilism - a school of
economics in the eighteenth and nineteenth
century that was directly opposite to the
school of classical economics. Unlike the
laissez faire classicists, mercantilists believed
in government action designed to encourage the
flow of gold and other precious metals into the
country. meritocracy - a society in
which power is wielded by those who deserve it,
based on their talents, industry, and success in
competition, rather than through membership of
a certain class or the possession of wealth,
etc. America prides itself on being a
meritocracy, an equal opportunity society; the
ideal of a meritocracy is often cite today by
those who oppose affirmative action
programs. messianism - a doctrine
that is inspired by the prospect of the imminent
arrival of a messiah, a savior, who will lead his
people to freedom. methodology - the
science of methods; a system of methods.
microeconomics - a branch of economics
that deals with the individual parts of an
economy, rather than the aggregate, which is the
sphere of macroeconomics.
military-industrial complex - the extremely close
political, economic and bureaucratic
relationship that exists between the Pentagon and
its network of defense contractors. The phrase
was coined by President Dwight Eisenhower in
his farewell address in 1961, when he warned that
"In the councils of government we must
guard against the acquisition of unwarranted
influence, whether sought or unsought, by the
military-industrial complex. The potential for
the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and
will persist." Because of the huge amounts
of money (and large numbers of jobs) involved,
the military-industrial complex has a profound
influence on the nation's security
policies. militia - an armed force
of citizen soldiers. Originally, militia systems
were based on the idea that every citizen was
obliged to serve his country; George
Washington's army consisted of 41 percent
militia. The other justification for a militia
is that it safeguards the country against the
possibility of gross abuse of power by a
government or professional army. The Second
Amendment of the U.S. constitution states,
"A well regulated Militia, being necessary
to the security of a free State, the right of
the people to keep and bear arms shall not be
infringed," a clause that is hotly debated
today by gun control advocates and their
opponents. The state militia were replaced in
1916 by the National Guard. However, during the
1990s there was a resurgence of interest in the
idea of a citizen's militia, and many states
now have such organizations. Some of them are
dominated by right-wing patriots and believers
in conspiracy theories, who believe the U.S.
government is becoming a tyranny and they must
take steps to defend themselves against it
before it is too late.
millenarianism - the term originally referred to
the Christian belief that Christ would return,
and in this Second Coming, he would establish
his thousand year reign (the millenium), which
would be followed by the Last Judgment of all
humanity. The term is now used in a wider sense
to describe a certain form that this belief has
taken in Christian sects and movements. Norman
Cohn, in his classic book, The Pursuit of the
Millenium, describes the following beliefs that
millenarian movements profess: Salvation is
thought to be collective (that is, to be
enjoyed by the faithful as a group); it will be
realized on this earth, not in an other-worldly
heaven; it will come soon, probably within the
lifetime of the believers; it will utterly
transform all life on earth to perfection; and
it will be miraculous, in that it will be
accomplished by supernatural agencies.
Millenarian sects and movements flourished at
various times in Europe from the eleventh to the
seventeenth century. Elements of millenarian
beliefs are found in many Christian churches
and movements today, and some "New Age"
groups profess similar beliefs, often shorn of
their Christian jargon.
minimum wage
- the lowest hourly rate that an empoyer must pay
an employee. Federal law mandating a minimum
wage was first enacted in 1938, when the rate
was set at 25 cents an hour. In 2010 the federal
minimum wage was $7.25 an hour. Over 32 U.S.
states have minimum wage laws that are higher
than the federal level. Supporters of a minimum
wage law say it reduces poverty. Opponents say
it increases unemployment among lower-skilled
workers because employers would have to reduce
the number of jobs to meet higher wage bills.
Some argue that increasing the minimum wage would
lead to job losses by prompting factories to
move to countries with even lower wages, such as
Mexico. minority -
less than half. The Senate minority leader, for
example, is the leader of the party that has
less than 50 percent of the seats in the Senate.
Minority also refers to ethnic or racial groups
in a society, when they form part of a large
society. A Native American, for example, is
referred to as a minority, as are Native
Americans collectively. The same applies to
African Americans, Hispanics, and other ethnic
groups. mixed economy - an economy
in which elements from the free enterprise
system are combined with elements of socialism.
Most industrial economies, now including those
in the post-communist world, are mixed economies.
Even in the U.S., that bastion of capitalism,
some enterprises, such as the Post Office, are
publically owned, and private business is subject
to many federal regulations.
mobilization - the process of calling up the
armed forces in preparation for war.
moderate - not extreme. Moderate political
policies are those that occupy the middle
ground, between the right and the left, and that
do not try to effect fundamental societal
change. As such, moderate is the opposite of
radical. modus operandi - Latin
phrase meaning manner of working, as in the
modus operandi of an army, an organization, a
political system. modus vivendi -
Latin phrase meaning "manner of
living," which is used to describe
informal arrangements in political affairs, as in
the two sides reached a modus vivendi regarding
the disputed territories. They may not agree,
but they have worked out a way of living with
their differences. momentum - the
impetus of something that is already moving. In
election campaigns, politicians always strive
for momentum-a good performance in one
presidential primary, for example, will give them
momentum going into the next one.
monarchy - form of rulership whereby a queen or
king, empress or emperor holds absolute or
limited power, usually inherited. In this century
most European monarchies have become
constitutional or limited, meaning political
power is vested in elected officials and the
monarch's duties are largely ceremonial. Such
monarchies often represent a strong symbol of
national identity in the people's minds. In
some countries of Africa, the Middle East, and
Asia monarchs still continue to hold absolute
power. monetarism - the economic
school that places growth in the money supply as
central to economic planning. money
supply - the amount of money in an economy, made
up of circulation currency and demand deposits
(checking accounts) in commercial banks (the
latter make up three-quarters of the money
supply). It does not include U.S. government
deposits. The total amount of money supply
results from the interaction of banks, the
Federal Reserve, business, government, and
consumers. monism - the doctrine
that only one ultimate being exists. Thus
Judaism, Christianity and Islam are monistic
religions. monopoly - exclusive
control of something. In economics, it refers to
exclusive control of a commodity or service in a
given market-which usually leads to higher
prices for the consumer. Monopolies are not
common in American industry, partly due to
anti-trust laws. The term also refers to an
exclusive privilege, granted by the state, of
engaging in a particular business or providing
a service. Monroe Doctrine - a U.S.
foreign policy that opposes European intervention
in the political affairs of the Western
hemisphere. It was first laid down by President
James Monroe in 1823, who stated that "the
American continents, by the free and
independent condition which they have assumed
and maintained, are henceforth not to be
considered as subjects for future colonization
by any European powers. . . . We should consider
any attempt on their part to extend their
system to any part of this hemisphere as
dangerous to our peace and safety." In
return, the U.S agreed not to interfere in the
internal affairs of Europe. The Monroe Doctrine
was at the center of debate regarding U.S.
involvement in World War I and World War II, and
was also invoked during the Cuban missile
crisis in 1962, when the Soviet Union installed
nuclear missiles in Cuba, a violation of the
Monroe Doctrine. However, analysts claim that
the Monroe Doctrine is now declining in
importance. moralism - a doctrine
that prescribes a code of ethics but does not
link it to religion. muckraking -
a journalist who exposes conduct or practices
that are against the public interest. Modern
day journalists who expose malpractices prefer
to be called "investigative
reporters." Referring to a character from
Pilgrim's Progress, President Theodore Roosevelt
first applied the term to early 20th century
reporting practices, calling them the "men
with the muckrakes." He criticized them
for focusing exclusively on corruption without
providing a positive outlook for social
problems. mudslinging - the practice
of trying to discredit political opponents by
spreading lies, distortions, and innuendo about
them. Mudslinging is part of what is today
called "negative campaigning," and by
many accounts has been on the rise in recent
election campaigns, although it has existed as
long as politics has.
multilateralism - pertaining to several sides. It
can refer to international trade between more
than two countries without discrimination between
them, or to international diplomatic accords or
treaties between more than two states. It is
multilateralism, for example, when the U.S.
consults with its European allies before making
important foreign policy decisions, so that a
unified position may emerge.
multinational corporations - corporations that
have operations in more than one country. Many
of these corporations are very large, with
budgets that exceed that of some nations???
GDP. The majority of them are American or
Japanese. multipolar -
having many poles. The term is often used to
refer to the post-Cold War world, which is
multipolar rather than bipolar, meaning that
there are now many centers of global power rather
than just two (the U.S. and the Soviet
Union.) multiple warheads - several
warheads (the part of the weapon that carries
the explosive charge) on one strategic missile.
Multiple warheads are also referred to as
MIRVs, for multiple independently targetable
reentry vehicles. Each warhead can be guided to
a different target. The creation of multiple
warheads in the 1980s made the nuclear balance
between the superpowers more unstable because
it made a first strike more attractive. Al Gore
explained how the thinking went: "If the
U.S.S.R. and the U.S. have three missiles
apiece and that's their total arsenal, and each
missile has six warheads, then the nation
launching a first strike can launch one missile
and put two warheads there, two there, and two
there [Gore hits three paper cups on a table].
In the aftermath, the aggressor has two thirds of
its forces remaining, and the victim has
none." (Quoted in The Power Game, by
Hedrick Smith.)
municipal law -
local legislation; also refers to the national
law of a country, as opposed to international
law. Muslim
Brotherhood - a fundamentalist Islamic group that
is a political force in several Arab countries.
In Egypt it is banned, but supporters still run
for office, calling themselves independents. In
elections in Egypt in 2005, the Brotherhood
became the largest opposition party in the
National Assembly. in Jordan the Muslim
Brotherhood holds more seats in the parliament
than any other party.<
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